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In This Chapter
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Heat Treatment by Induction
- The Basics of Metallurgy and Principles of Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast Irons
- Crystalline Structures and Critical Temperatures
- Fe–Fe3C Phase Transformation Diagram and Steel Classifications
- Time–Temperature Transformation Diagram and Continuous- Cooling Transformation Diagram
- Steel’s Trace (Residual) Elements and Alloying Elements
- Hardenability
- Through Hardening
- Induction Surface (Case) Hardening
- Summary of the Limitations of Standard Forms of Hardenability Tests
- Effect of Heat Intensity (Heating Rate) and Prior Structure on Induction Heat Treatment Results in Steels
- Super-Hardness Phenomenon
- Inclusions
- Grain Boundary Liquation (Incipient Melting)
- Specifics of Induction Hardening Stainless Steels and Bearing Steels
- Induction Heat Treatment of Cast Irons
- Gray Cast Irons
- Ductile Cast Irons
- Specifics of Electromagnetic and Thermal Properties
- Good Practices in Induction Hardening of Cast Irons and Closing Remarks
- Specifics of Induction Hardening of Powder Metallurgy Materials
- Induction Hardening: Subtleties of Machine Design and Process Recipe Selection
- Hardness Case Depth Definitions
- Induction Hardening Methods
- Scan Hardening
- Inductor Designs for Scan Hardening
- Case Studies of FEA Computer Modeling of Scan Hardening Applications
- Induction Scanners: Vertical Scanning versus Horizontal Scanning
- Induction Scanners: Movable Inductor versus Movable Part
- Induction Scanners: Single-Frequency Scanners, Dual-Frequency Scanners
- Induction Scanners: Equipment Designs for Greater Flexibility
- Continuous and Progressive Hardening
- Single-Shot Hardening
- Conventional Design of Single-Shot Inductors
- Single-Shot Inductor Breakthrough
- Serpentine-Style Single-Shot Inductors
- Solenoid-Style Coils for Single-Shot Hardening
- Static Hardening
- Pulse Heating Mode
- Specialty Inductors
- Pancake, Split-Return, Butterfly, and Hairpin Inductors
- Specifics of Designing Inductors for Heating Interior Surfaces
- Proximity Induction Heating of Flat and Plane Surfaces
- Inductors with Inserts
- Clamshell or Split Inductors
- Profiled Inductors
- Fabrication and Cooling of Hardening Inductors
- Frequency Choice and Power Selection
- Inductor Mounting Styles
- Quenching and Spray Quench Designs
- Introduction
- Quench Media
- Quench Methods
- Part Cleaning before Heating and after Quenching
- Quench Systems Design and Controls
- Striping (Striation) Phenomena, Barber-Pole Effect, and Snakeskin (Soft-Spotting) and Fish-Tail Phenomena
- Holes, Keyways, Grooves, Undercuts, and Other Geometrical Irregularities
- Longitudinal (Axial) Holes and Longitudinally Oriented Hollow Areas
- Transverse (Radial) Holes
- Angled Holes
- Other Factors
- Control of Distortion and Prevention of Cracking
- Accessory Equipment and Work Handling for Heat Treating
- Robots, Gantries, and Pick-and-Place Units
- Hoppers and Magazines
- Conveyors
- Rotary Tables
- Unscramblers and Bar Feeders
- Cylindrical Part Feed Mechanisms
- Pipe and Tube Handling Equipment
- Basket-to-Basket Systems for Long Products
- Strip Heating Mechanisms
- Accessory Systems for Processing Large Steel Plates
- Work Holding Centers
- Tempering of Induction-Hardened Components
- General Comments Regarding Tempering
- Self-Tempering (“Slack Quenching”)
- Induction Tempering and Its Features
- Coil Design and Process Parameters
- Flux Manager Technology for Stress Relief of Oil Country Tubular Goods
- Achieving Radial Heat Uniformity
- Achieving Longitudinal (Axial) Heat Uniformity
- Conventional Induction Heating Technology Utilizing Line Frequency (50–60 Hz)
- Call for Higher Frequencies (500 kHz to 10 kHz)
- The Use of a Faraday Ring (“Robber” Ring Effect)
- Fluxmanager Technology
- C-Core Inductors
- Final Remarks
- Magnetic Flux Control Techniques: Concentrators, Intensifiers, Shunts, and Shields
- Heat Treating Equipment Maintenance
- Power Supply
- Visual Inspection
- Mechanical Test
- Ohm-Meter Tests
- Power Measurements (Meter or Oscilloscope)
- Meters and Limit Lamps
- Audible and Visual Observation
- Heat Station, Bus Connections, and Inductor Foot
- Visual
- Mechanical Test
- Ohm-Meter/Capacitor/Meter/Load Frequency Analyzer
- Audible and Visual Observation
- Water Recirculating System
- Quench Recirculating System
- Heat Treating Inductor Maintenance and Storage
- Consistent Workpiece Holding
- Keeping the Inductor Clean
- Visual Inspection
- Maintain Electrical Contacts
- Maintaining Spares
- Flux Concentrators
- Heat-Treating Machinery Maintenance
- Review of Selected IHT Applications
- Gear, Pinion, and Sprocket Hardening
- Material Selection and Required Gear Conditions before Heat Treatment
- Overview of Hardness Patterns
- Coil Design and Heating Mode
- Hardening of Steering Racks
- Induction Hardening Raceways for the Wind Energy Industry
- Induction Hardening of Crankshafts
- Induction Hardening of Camshafts
- Solutions for Solving Typical IHT Problems: Questions and Answers
- Case Study #1. The Power–Scan Rate–Hardness Relationship
- Case Study #2. Cryogenic Coil Cooling
- Case Study #3. Chain Hardening
- Case Study #4. Hardness at Diameter Change in Scan Hardening of Stepped Shafts
- Case Study #5. Quenchant pH and Corrosion
- Case Study #6. Copper Coil Wall Thickness vs. Coil Life
- Case Study #7. Residual Magnetism
- Case Study #8. Heating with Variable Axial Gaps between Long Rods
- Case Study #9. Hollow Shafts with Holes and Splines
- Case Study #10. Graphs of Hardened Case Depth vs. Power
- Case Study #11. Induction Tempering and Reverse Residual Stress Distribution
- Case Study #12. Soft Spots after Grinding
- Case Study #13. Safety Warning for People with Pacemakers, Metallic Implants, etc.
- Case Study #14. Re-Hardening of Already Induction Hardened Parts
- Case Study #15. Etched vs. Unetched Samples in Crack Detection
- Case Study #16. Induction Heating of Ultra-Thin Conductive Coatings
- Case Study #17. Distortion of Shafts in Induction Hardening
- Case Study #18. Uniform Heating of Steel Plates
- Case Study #19. Circumferential Hardness Variation Using Single-Shot Inductors
- Case Study #20. Non-Martensitic Structures in Induction Hardened Parts
Abstract
This chapter is devoted to the study of the metallurgical aspects, design approaches, the selection of process parameters, equipment specifications, and physical phenomena that are imperative to understand the manufacturing and operation of induction heat treating (IHT) machinery.
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