Abstract

There are five pollution problems associated with wastewater: nutrients, biodegradable organic matter, bacteria and viruses, metals (particularly heavy metals), and refractory organic compounds. An overview of the available conventional methods is presented, both the removal efficiencies of the methods and their costs. To get a complete overview of all possible treatment methods, the presented list has to be supplemented by low-cost methods, recently developed methods, and ecological engineering methods. The possibilities to upgrade existing treatment facilities are discussed. A procedure for the selection of a method or a combination of methods in a considered case is proposed. Further details about the presented methods are given in other entries.